# 甲斐もなく: despite; even though ~

> Learn how to use 甲斐もなく, a JLPT N1 Japanese grammar point meaning despite or even though, with structure, nuance, examples, mistakes, and comparisons.

JLPT level: N1 · Updated: 2026-05-18 · Canonical: https://hane-app.com/blog/n1-kai-mo-naku/

**<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** means **despite; even though ~**. It is a **JLPT N1** Japanese grammar pattern used to express that an expected result or payoff did not materialise after effort or hope had been invested.

This grammar point often appears in essays, editorials, formal speech, and JLPT N1 reading passages. If you want to convey disappointment, wasted effort, or a contrast between anticipation and reality, **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** adds sharp emotional precision to your Japanese.

## What does <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく mean?

Use **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** when an action or state that *should* have brought a positive outcome instead led to an undesired or opposite result. It marks the outcome as contrary to the effort or expectation—often with regret, frustration, or irony.

Natural translations include:
- despite ~; even though ~; without the expected result; in vain

The Japanese underlying concept is <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby> (かい) “worth, effect, meaning” — literally “without the expected effect.” Translating it as a simple “despite” misses the emotional layer. When you choose **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく**, you are saying “I (or someone) put something into this, and it didn’t pay off.”

## How to form <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく

<div class="formation">
  <span class="ftoken t-stem"><ruby>努力<rp>(</rp><rt>どりょく</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した</span><span class="fplus">＋</span><span class="ftoken t-aux"><ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく</span>
</div>

The pattern attaches to a verb (plain form, non-past or past) or a noun with の.

<div class="formula">
  Verb<sub>plain non‑past / past</sub> ＋ <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく
  <br>
  Noun ＋ の ＋ <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく
</div>

Examples of the pattern:
- <ruby>努力<rp>(</rp><rt>どりょく</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく (despite having tried hard)
- <ruby>待っ<rp>(</rp><rt>まっ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>た<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく (after all that waiting, in vain)
- <ruby>勉強<rp>(</rp><rt>べんきょう</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>の<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく (despite studying, to no avail)
- <ruby>準備<rp>(</rp><rt>じゅんび</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく (despite all the preparation)

In JLPT questions, pay attention to the verb form: した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく is extremely common, but する<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく also appears for ongoing or generic futility. The wrong answer choices often misuse noun attachment (e.g., dropping の) or mix it with <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>があって (which means “it was worth it”).

## When is <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく used?

Use **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** in situations like:
- describing a disappointing outcome after deliberate effort
- contrasting high expectations with poor results
- expressing regret, irony, or lament in narrative writing

Tone and register:
- formal to semi‑formal; natural in written Japanese (news, reviews, essays) and careful spoken Japanese
- carries a definite emotional charge—it is not a neutral contrast marker

You’ll find **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** in news commentary about failed policies (“<ruby>改革<rp>(</rp><rt>かいかく</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>の<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく”), sports reports, and personal anecdotes where the speaker wants to emphasise that they tried hard but failed.

## <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく example sentences

<div class="examples">

<div class="example">
  <div class="example-jp">
    <span class="furi">努力</span>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<span class="furi">試験</span>に<span class="furi">落</span>ちてしまった。
  </div>
  <div class="example-en">Despite all my efforts, I failed the exam.</div>
  <div class="example-foot"><span class="example-tag">effort wasted</span> <span class="example-tag">personal</span></div>
</div>

<div class="example">
  <div class="example-jp">
    せっかく<span class="furi">準備</span>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<span class="furi">当日</span>は<ruby>大雨<rp>(</rp><rt>おおあめ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>で<span class="furi">中止</span>になった。
  </div>
  <div class="example-en">All that preparation went to waste when it got cancelled due to heavy rain on the day.</div>
  <div class="example-foot"><span class="example-tag">irony</span> <span class="example-tag">event</span></div>
</div>

<div class="example">
  <div class="example-jp">
    これだけ<span class="furi">待</span>った<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<span class="furi">彼</span>は<span class="furi">来</span>なかった。
  </div>
  <div class="example-en">After all that waiting, he didn’t show up. (lit. despite having waited so long, in vain)</div>
  <div class="example-foot"><span class="example-tag">disappointment</span></div>
</div>

<div class="example">
  <div class="example-jp">
    <span class="furi">治療</span>の<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<span class="furi">病状</span>は<span class="furi">悪化</span>した。
  </div>
  <div class="example-en">The treatment was in vain; the condition worsened.</div>
  <div class="example-foot"><span class="example-tag">formal</span> <span class="example-tag">medical</span></div>
</div>

<div class="example">
  <div class="example-jp">
    <span class="furi">注意</span>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、また<span class="furi">同</span>じミスが<span class="furi">起</span>きた。
  </div>
  <div class="example-en">Despite being warned, the same mistake happened again.</div>
  <div class="example-foot"><span class="example-tag">frustration</span> <span class="example-tag">repetition</span></div>
</div>

</div>

After reading each sentence, notice how **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** introduces a clear emotional setback: the preceding effort or expectation was real and reasonable, yet the outcome denied it.

## Nuance of <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく

The key nuance is **wasted investment — effort, hope, or time that should have paid off but didn’t**. The pattern is not a dry logical “despite”; it carries a tone of lament or regret. When you read or write it, you should feel that someone has been let down.

That matters because learners sometimes over‑use it as a replacement for のに or にもかかわらず. Those patterns can simply state a contrast; **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** implies the speaker *expected better*. Using it where no prior effort or hope was involved sounds unnatural. For example, “<ruby>天気<rp>(</rp><rt>てんき</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>が<ruby>悪い<rp>(</rp><rt>わるい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby><ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく” would be odd unless someone had prepared for good weather.

<div class="note-callout">
  <div class="note-icon">💡</div>
  <div class="note-body">
    Think of <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby> as “return on investment.” If you put in time, energy, or emotion and got nothing back, <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく is your word. If you just want to say “Despite the rain, I went out,” stick with のに or にもかかわらず.
  </div>
</div>

## <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく vs にもかかわらず

<div class="compare">

<div class="cmp a">
  <div class="cmp-head"><ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく</div>
  <div class="cmp-sub">despite ~ (effort was wasted)</div>
  <div class="cmp-when">When you want to underline that the effort, hope, or preparation didn’t yield the expected result. Emotionally coloured — conveys regret, irony, or lament.</div>
  <div class="cmp-eg"><ruby>努力<rp>(</rp><rt>どりょく</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<ruby>合格<rp>(</rp><rt>ごうかく</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>できなかった。</div>
  <div class="cmp-eg-en">Despite all that hard work, I couldn’t pass. (emphasis on the wasted effort)</div>
</div>

<div class="vs">vs</div>

<div class="cmp b">
  <div class="cmp-head">にもかかわらず</div>
  <div class="cmp-sub">despite ~; in spite of (factual contrast)</div>
  <div class="cmp-when">A neutral, logical contrast. It doesn’t inherently imply the subject had high expectations or invested emotionally. Common in formal reports and news.</div>
  <div class="cmp-eg"><ruby>一生懸命<rp>(</rp><rt>いっしょうけんめい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby><ruby>勉強<rp>(</rp><rt>べんきょう</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>したにもかかわらず、<ruby>合格<rp>(</rp><rt>ごうかく</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>できなかった。</div>
  <div class="cmp-eg-en">In spite of studying very hard, I couldn’t pass. (more factual; less lament)</div>
</div>

</div>

Quick rule of thumb: If the Japanese sentence could naturally end with “…<ruby>残念<rp>(</rp><rt>ざんねん</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>だ” (it’s a shame), **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** is a good fit. If the sentence is just reporting facts without emotional commentary, **にもかかわらず** works better.

## Common mistakes with <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく

<div class="mistakes">

<div class="mistake">
  <div class="mline">
    <span class="mark bad">❌</span>
    <div class="mline-body"><ruby>天気<rp>(</rp><rt>てんき</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>が<ruby>悪かっ<rp>(</rp><rt>わるかっ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>た<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<ruby>出かけ<rp>(</rp><rt>でかけ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>た。</div>
  </div>
  <div class="note">There’s no “investment” here — the bad weather isn’t something you worked for or hoped would be good in the context given. The sentence just states a contrast, so のに or にもかかわらず is natural.</div>
</div>

<div class="mistake">
  <div class="mline">
    <span class="mark good">✅</span>
    <div class="mline-body">せっかく<ruby>晴れ<rp>(</rp><rt>はれ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>を<ruby>願っ<rp>(</rp><rt>ねがっ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>ていた<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<ruby>旅行<rp>(</rp><rt>りょこう</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby><ruby>当日<rp>(</rp><rt>とうじつ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>は<ruby>大雨<rp>(</rp><rt>おおあめ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>だった。</div>
  </div>
  <div class="note">Here, the speaker had hoped for good weather (investment of hope), so <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく fits perfectly.</div>
</div>

<div class="mistake">
  <div class="mline">
    <span class="mark bad">❌</span>
    <div class="mline-body"><ruby>貯金<rp>(</rp><rt>ちょきん</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<ruby>新しい<rp>(</rp><rt>あたらしい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby><ruby>車<rp>(</rp><rt>くるま</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>を<ruby>買っ<rp>(</rp><rt>かっ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>た。</div>
  </div>
  <div class="note">Saving money did pay off — you bought the car. This sentence contradicts itself. You need <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>があって or just a simple cause‑effect form.</div>
</div>

<div class="mistake">
  <div class="mline">
    <span class="mark good">✅</span>
    <div class="mline-body"><ruby>何年<rp>(</rp><rt>なんねん</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>も<ruby>貯金<rp>(</rp><rt>ちょきん</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<ruby>急<rp>(</rp><rt>きゅう</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>な<ruby>出費<rp>(</rp><rt>しゅっぴ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>で<ruby>貯金<rp>(</rp><rt>ちょきん</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>はすべて<ruby>消え<rp>(</rp><rt>きえ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>た。</div>
  </div>
  <div class="note">Now the saving effort was wasted by unexpected expenses — the right emotional tone.</div>
</div>

</div>

A useful drill: after writing a sentence with **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく**, ask yourself “What did I (or someone) invest here, and why did it not work out?” If you can’t answer clearly, you probably need a simpler contrast pattern.

## Is <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく on the JLPT?

<div class="jlpt-card">
  <div class="jlpt-shield">N1</div>
  <div class="jlpt-info">
    <strong><ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく</strong> is regularly tested at the <strong>JLPT N1</strong> level — often in the reading section as a comprehension trap and in the grammar section where you must choose the correct conjunctive particle.
  </div>
  <div class="jlpt-checks">
    You should be able to recognise it as a signal of disappointment / wasted effort, distinguish it from <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>があって, and know the attachment rules (verb plain form / noun + の).
  </div>
</div>

On the test, wrong choices often include ために (purpose) or ように (so that), tempting you to ignore the emotional layer. Always check the tone of the passage.

## Practice questions for <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく

<div class="prompts">

<div class="prompt">
  <span class="prompt-num">1</span>
  <div class="prompt-text">Write a sentence about a time you prepared for something but it didn’t work out as hoped. Use <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく after a past verb.</div>
  <span class="prompt-tag">personal effort</span>
</div>

<div class="prompt">
  <span class="prompt-num">2</span>
  <div class="prompt-text">Create a news headline using <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく to describe a policy that failed to produce results. Attach it to a noun+の.</div>
  <span class="prompt-tag">formal</span>
</div>

<div class="prompt">
  <span class="prompt-num">3</span>
  <div class="prompt-text">Take a sentence with にもかかわらず and rewrite it with <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく. Does the nuance change? Explain how.</div>
  <span class="prompt-tag">contrast drill</span>
</div>

<div class="prompt">
  <span class="prompt-num">4</span>
  <div class="prompt-text">Make a short dialogue where a friend consoles someone using <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく. For example, “あんなに<ruby>練習<rp>(</rp><rt>れんしゅう</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく、<ruby>本番<rp>(</rp><rt>ほんばん</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>でミスしちゃった…”</div>
  <span class="prompt-tag">conversation</span>
</div>

</div>

Keep your first sentences concrete. The pattern becomes natural when you link it to a real effort or expectation, not an abstract idea.

## Learning path for <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく

<div class="path">

<div class="path-step">
  <span class="step-num">1</span>
  <div class="step-body">Master the formation: be able to produce ～した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく and Nの<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく without hesitation. Drill with common collocations like <ruby>努力<rp>(</rp><rt>どりょく</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>した<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく, <ruby>願っ<rp>(</rp><rt>ねがっ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>た<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく.</div>
</div>

<div class="path-step">
  <span class="step-num">2</span>
  <div class="step-body">Compare it with にもかかわらず using the same clause. Identify which version adds regret and which stays neutral.</div>
</div>

<div class="path-step">
  <span class="step-num">3</span>
  <div class="step-body">Read N1-level opinion pieces (editorials, book reviews) and highlight every <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく. Note what the writer has invested — effort, money, hope — and why the outcome is disappointing.</div>
</div>

<div class="path-step">
  <span class="step-num">4</span>
  <div class="step-body">Write a short personal narrative (100‑200 characters) about a setback using <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく at least twice. Then read it aloud to feel the rhythm of the regret.</div>
</div>

</div>

## Related grammar to review next

- [<ruby>可能性<rp>(</rp><rt>かのうせい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>がある](/blog/n1-kanousei-ga-aru/) — because it expresses likelihood, often contrasting with an outcome where effort is wasted
- [<ruby>限り<rp>(</rp><rt>かぎり</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>だ](/blog/n1-kagiri-da/) — because it also conveys strong emotion (extreme regret or joy), pairing well with <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく’s lament
- [からある・からする・からの](/blog/n1-kara-aru-kara-suru-kara-no/) — because it emphasises large quantities or extents, which can set up a dramatic contrast when followed by <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく
- [かと<ruby>思い<rp>(</rp><rt>おもい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>きや](/blog/n1-ka-to-omoikiya/) — because it also marks a sharp, often surprising turn from expectation to reality, similar to the “despite” function

Each of these patterns deepens your ability to express layered contrasts and emotional undertones at the N1 level.

## Learn <ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく with Hane

If you want to internalise **<ruby>甲斐<rp>(</rp><rt>かい</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>もなく** alongside the related patterns above, Hane helps you practise Japanese in short, focused sessions that sharpen your intuition for nuance.

Browse more lessons here:
- [All grammar lessons](/blog/)
- [JLPT N1 grammar lessons](/blog/n1/)