# もしくは: or; otherwise > Learn how to use もしくは, a JLPT N1 Japanese grammar point meaning or; otherwise, with structure, nuance, examples, mistakes, and comparisons. JLPT level: N1 · Updated: 2026-05-18 · Canonical: https://hane-app.com/blog/n1-moshikuwa/ **もしくは** means **or; otherwise**. It is a **JLPT N1** Japanese grammar pattern used to present alternatives in a formal sense, often implying that the options are exclusive or that the last option may be taken as a fallback. This grammar point often appears in legal documents, contracts, rules, and formal written instructions. If you want to express alternatives in a precise, authoritative way, **もしくは** is a useful pattern to learn because it adds the weight and clarity expected in official Japanese. ## What does もしくは mean? Use **もしくは** when you want to present two or more alternatives, usually in a context where selecting one excludes the others, or where the second option serves as an alternative if the first cannot be used. Natural translations include: - or; otherwise; or else; in the alternative The best translation depends on the sentence. Try to notice the formal register and whether the writer intends to offer a fallback or a distinct choice. Often, "or" is enough, but "otherwise" fits when the first option is impossible. ## How to form もしくは
Noun / Noun Phrase + もしくは + Noun / Noun Phrase

Verb Phrase / Clause + もしくは + Verb Phrase / Clause
Examples of the pattern: - 鉛筆えんぴつもしくはボールペン - 返信へんしんするもしくは来店らいてんする Unlike many N1 grammar points, **もしくは** does not alter the form of the words around it. It simply sits between the items being contrasted. The form before and after are plain forms; no special conjugation is required. ## When is もしくは used? Use **もしくは** in situations like: - formal instructions or regulations - legal contracts and official announcements - academic or business writing where precision is critical - when you want to offer a fallback option ("A, or if that is not possible, B") Tone and register: - extremely formal; rarely used in casual speech - belongs to the written language of rules and procedures - Common in test questions, bureaucratic documents, and JLPT N1 reading ## もしくは example sentences
申込書もうしこみしょは黒くろのボールペンもしくは万年筆まんねんひつで記入きにゅうしてください。
Please complete the application form with a black ballpoint pen or a fountain pen.
formal instruction
必要書類ひつようしょるいを持参じさんするもしくは郵送ゆうそうすること。
Bring the necessary documents in person or send them by mail.
official notice
契約けいやくは双方そうほうの合意ごういのもとに解除かいじょできるもしくは法令ほうれいに従したがい終了しゅうりょうする。
The contract may be terminated by mutual agreement or ended in accordance with laws and regulations.
legal context
参加費さんかひは当日とうじつ受付うけつけで現金げんきんもしくはクレジットカードでお支払しはらいください。
Please pay the participation fee at reception on the day in cash or by credit card.
event instruction
本人確認書類ほんにんかくにんしょるいとして、運転免許証うんてんめんきょしょうもしくはパスポートを提示ていじのこと。
Please present a driver’s license or passport as identification.
rule / requirement
After reading each sentence, notice what job **もしくは** is doing: it lays out alternatives in a formal framework, often where only one can be done or the second only applies if the first is not possible. That makes the nuance clearer than a simple "or". ## Nuance of もしくは The key nuance is **formal exclusivity: the options are presented as alternatives, often with the implication that you must choose one—and sometimes with a built-in fallback hierarchy**. For example, in an instruction like "鉛筆(えんぴつ)もしくはボールペンで書く(かく)" (write with pencil or pen), it simply lists two equal ways. But in a legal clause, "支払い(しはらい)期日(きじつ)までに振り込む(ふりこむ)もしくは当社(とうしゃ)窓口(まどぐち)で支払う(しはらう)" it can mean "pay by bank transfer by the due date, or (if you cannot) pay at our counter," injecting a subtle "otherwise" nuance. This matters because learners often reach for casual "or" expressions (か、それとも、または) in situations that call for **もしくは**’s formality and precision. Using it correctly signals the ability to handle high-register Japanese, the kind expected in N1 reading and business scenarios. ## もしくは vs または Both **もしくは** and **または** mean "or" and are used in formal writing, but they are not fully interchangeable.
もしくは
formal exclusive choice; often implies a fallback
Used in legal text, regulations, and rules where the options are presented as alternatives that may be ranked. The second option is sometimes treated as a substitute if the first cannot be fulfilled.
書面しょめんで通知つうちするもしくは代理人だいりにんが口頭こうとうで伝つたえる。
Notify in writing or, failing that, have the representative convey it orally.
または
neutral formal "or"; equal alternatives
Common in everyday formal writing, emails, and announcements. Lists options without giving one preference over the other.
希望者きぼうしゃはメールまたは電話でんわで連絡れんらくください。
Interested parties please contact us by email or phone.
When you want to stress that the second option is a backup, or you are writing something like a contract clause, **もしくは** is the natural choice. If you simply need a formal "or" with no implied hierarchy, **または** is enough. ## Common mistakes with もしくは
❌
休やすみの日ひは海うみもしくは山やまに行いきたい。
✅
休やすみの日ひは海うみかそれとも山やまに行いきたい。
もしくは is too stiff for casual wishes. In casual speech, use か、それとも、あるいは、または。
❌
明日あしたもしくは明後日あさってでもいいよ。
✅
明日あしたか明後日あさってでもいいよ。
もしくは is never appropriate in friendly conversation. Stick to simple か for casual alternatives.
❌
提出先ていしゅつさきは人事じんじもしくは総務そうむに確認かくにんしてください。
✅
提出先ていしゅつさきは人事じんじまたは総務そうむに確認かくにんしてください。
When the choice is equal and the context is a routine instruction, または is more natural. Reserve もしくは for clauses where the second option is meant as an alternative if the first cannot apply.
A helpful practice method is to take a formal instruction and rewrite it once with **もしくは** and once with **または**. If the meaning shifts from "equal choice" to "fallback," you have felt the nuance. ## Is もしくは on the JLPT?
N1

Yes. もしくは is explicitly listed as JLPT N1 grammar.

  • It appears in reading comprehension passages from contracts, public notices, and formal essays.
  • Questions may test your ability to distinguish it from または or あるいは in a multiple-choice cloze.
  • You should be able to recognize it instantly in dense official text and understand whether a fallback nuance is present.
For test preparation, study **もしくは** in full sentences taken from mock exams. Pay attention to the surrounding register; if the text sounds like a law or a rule, **もしくは** is often the correct answer over less formal alternatives. ## Practice questions for もしくは
1
Write a sentence that uses もしくは to list two acceptable forms of identification for a formal procedure.
formal instruction
2
Compose a legal-style clause where the second action is only taken if the first is not possible.
fallback nuance
3
Rewrite the following sentence using もしくは and then using または. Explain the difference in tone: 「パスポートか運転免許(うんてんめんきょ)証(しょう)を提示(ていじ)してください」
contrast practice
4
What would be unnatural about using もしくは in an email inviting a friend to dinner tomorrow or the next day? Write a corrected version.
register check
Keep your first sentences formulaic: “noun A もしくは noun B を verb.” Once that feels natural, expand the clause after もしくは so the fallback interpretation becomes clear. ## Learning path for もしくは
1
Memorize the register. Read a handful of real-life examples from terms of service or government notices so the formal tone of もしくは becomes second nature.
2
Contrast with または. Take 3–4 sentences where either could technically fit, and decide which one feels more natural. Check with a native speaker or a reference corpus.
3
Produce fallback clauses. Write instructions where the first option is expected to fail (e.g., if the attachment won’t open, fill out the form). This forces the “otherwise” meaning of もしくは to surface.
4
Simulate JLPT contexts. Find N1 reading sections with legal/disclaimer text. Practice underlining every もしくは and paraphrasing the relationship it signals.
5
Link it to other N1 formal connectors. Read the related points below to see how もしくは fits into a network of advanced formal grammar.
## Related grammar to review next - [んばかりに](/blog/n1-n-bakari-ni/) — because it also expresses a strong condition that drives an outcome, often in literary registers - [ものとして](/blog/n1-mono-toshite/) — because it also appears in formal declarations, shaping how a situation is officially regarded - [んがために](/blog/n1-n-ga-tame-ni/) — because it also conveys purpose in a stiff, written style, parallel to formal instructions - [ものとする](/blog/n1-mono-to-suru/) — because it, like もしくは, is a staple of contracts and official documents, defining what is to be done ## Learn もしくは with Hane If you want to review **もしくは** together with the related patterns above, Hane helps you practice Japanese in short, focused sessions. Browse more lessons here: - [All grammar lessons](/blog/) - [JLPT N1 grammar lessons](/blog/n1/)